Student Agency in Schools: A Systematic Review of Its Measurement and Operationalization in the Era of AI-Mediated Learning
Keywords:
AI-Mediated Learning, Agency Measurement, Educational Assessment, School-Based Counselling, Student AgencyAbstract
This systematic review examines how student agency has been defined, operationalized, and measured across primary, secondary, and higher education. Using a structured search strategy across major academic databases, 45 empirical and conceptual studies were analysed through thematic synthesis. The findings indicate that student agency is predominantly conceptualized as a multidimensional construct encompassing personal, relational, and contextual resources. Measurement practices are largely grounded in social-cognitive traditions, emphasizing self-efficacy, motivation, self-regulation, and proactive engagement within domain-specific instructional contexts. While these approaches have strengthened the empirical measurement of agency, they tend to capture it primarily as a situational learning-related capacity. In learning environments increasingly shaped by digital and AI-mediated processes, this focus leaves learners’ intentionality, autonomy, and responsibility only partially examined. Emotional, relational, and structural dimensions of agency also remain underrepresented. The review highlights the need for integrated frameworks that combine instructional, assessment, and school-based counselling perspectives to support student agency as both a learning-related and psychological capacity in contemporary educational contexts. The review highlights the need for integrated approaches that combine instructional, assessment, and school-based counselling perspectives. Such integration is essential for advancing measurement frameworks and interventions that support student agency as both a learning-related and psychological capacity in contemporary educational contexts.
Downloads
References
M. Klemenčič, S. Bergan, and R. Primožič, “What is student agency? An ontological exploration in the context of research on student engagement,” in Student Engagement in Europe: Society, Higher Education and Student Governance, The Council of Europe Higher Education Series No. 20, 2015, pp. 11-29, Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing.
A. Cook-Sather, “Student voice across contexts: Fostering student agency in today’s schools,” Theory Pract., vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 182–191, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.1080/00405841.2019.1705091. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2019.1705091
M. H. Stenalt, “Digital student agency: Approaching agency in digital contexts from a critical perspective,” Frontline Learn. Res., vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 52–68, Jul. 2021, doi: 10.14786/flr.v9i3.697. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v9i3.697
A. Ma, A. S. Rosette, and C. Zhou Koval, “A multidimensional scale of agency,” in Academy of Management Proceedings, vol. 2017, no. 1, e14686, Aug. 2017, Briarcliff Manor, NY: Academy of Management, doi: 10.5465/AMBPP.2017.14686abstract. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2017.14686abstract
S. Alkire, “Chapter 24 Concepts and Measures of Agency,” in Arguments for a Better World: Essays in Honor of Amartya Sen, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008, pp. 455–474. doi: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199239115.003.0025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199239115.003.0025
M. Vaughn et al., “A cross-cultural perspective of agency in primary contexts: Validation of the student agency profile across multiple sites,” Int. J. Educ. Res., vol. 124, e102291, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102291. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102291
E. A. Patall, “Agentic engagement: Transcending passive motivation.,” Motiv. Sci., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 222–233, Sep. 2024, doi: 10.1037/mot0000332. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000332
P. Jääskelä, A.-M. Poikkeus, K. Vasalampi, U. M. Valleala, and H. Rasku-Puttonen, “Assessing agency of university students: validation of the AUS Scale,” Stud. Higher Educ., vol. 42, no. 11, pp. 2061–2079, Nov. 2017, doi: 10.1080/03075079.2015.1130693. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1130693
P. Jääskelä, A.-M. Poikkeus, P. Häkkinen, K. Vasalampi, H. Rasku-Puttonen, and A. Tolvanen, “Students’ agency profiles in relation to student-perceived teaching practices in university courses,” Int. J. Educ. Res., vol. 103, e101604, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101604. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101604
P. Jääskelä, A. Tolvanen, V. I. Marín, and A.-M. Poikkeus, “Assessment of students’ agency in Finnish and Spanish university courses: Analysis of measurement invariance,” Int. J. Educ. Res., vol. 118, e102140, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102140. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102140
E. Morgado, L. Leonido, A. Pereira, and L. B. Gouveia, “Technology-mediated education: Impact of AI on the main distance learning modalities,” Educ. Process Int. J., vol. 16, no. 1, e2025211, 2025, doi: 10.22521/edupij.2025.16.211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22521/edupij.2025.16.211
G. Zhu, V. Sudarshan, J. F. Kow, and Y. S. Ong, “Human-generative AI collaborative problem solving who leads and how students perceive the interactions,” in Proceedings - 2024 IEEE Conference on Artificial Intelligence, CAI 2024, 2024. doi: 10.1109/CAI59869.2024.00133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/CAI59869.2024.00133
W. Yan, T. Nakajima, and R. Sawada, “Benefits and challenges of collaboration between students and conversational generative artificial intelligence in programming learning: An empirical case study,” Educ. Sci. (Basel)., vol. 14, no. 4, e433, Apr. 2024, doi: 10.3390/educsci14040433. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14040433
G. Schreiber, “Reconsidering agency in the age of AI,” Filozofia, vol. 79, no. 5, e529, 2024, doi: 10.31577/filozofia.2024.79.5.7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31577/filozofia.2024.79.5.5
A. Mouta, A. M. Pinto-Llorente, and E. M. Torrecilla-Sánchez, “‘Where is agency moving to?’: Exploring the interplay between AI technologies in education and human agency,” Digit. Soc., vol. 4, no. 2, e49, Aug. 2025, doi: 10.1007/s44206-025-00203-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44206-025-00203-9
F. Siddiq, F. M. Røkenes, A. Lund, and R. Scherer, “New kid on the block? A conceptual systematic review of digital agency,” Educ. Inf. Technol. (Dordr)., vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 5721–5752, Apr. 2024, doi: 10.1007/s10639-023-12038-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12038-3
U. E. Castro and C. Pineda-Báez, “How has the conceptualisation of student agency in higher education evolved? Mapping the literature from 2000-2022,” J. Furth. High. Educ., vol. 47, no. 9, pp. 1182–1195, Oct. 2023, doi: 10.1080/0309877X.2023.2231358. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2023.2231358
A. Bandura, “Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective,” Annu. Rev. Psychol., vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 1–26, Feb. 2001, doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.1
A. Giddens, “The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration: Elements of the theory of structuration,” in Practicing History: New Directions in Historical Writing after the Linguistic Turn. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2004.
P. Bourdieu, “Outline of a Theory of Practice,” in The New Social Theory Reader, Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2020, pp. 80–86. doi: 10.4324/9781003060963-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003060963-11
M. Emirbayer and A. Mische, “What is agency?,” Am. J. Sociol., vol. 103, no. 4, pp. 962–1023, Jan. 1998, doi: 10.1086/231294. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/231294
J. Code, “Agency for learning: Intention, motivation, self-efficacy and self-regulation,” Front. Educ. (Lausanne)., vol. 5, no. 19, Feb. 2020, doi: 10.3389/feduc.2020.00019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2020.00019
J. Reeve, “How students create motivationally supportive learning environments for themselves: The concept of agentic engagement.,” J. Educ. Psychol., vol. 105, no. 3, pp. 579–595, Aug. 2013, doi: 10.1037/a0032690. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032690
J. Arnold and D. J. Clarke, “What is ‘agency’? Perspectives in science education research,” Int. J. Sci. Educ., vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 735–754, Mar. 2014, doi: 10.1080/09500693.2013.825066. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2013.825066
M. Vaughn, “What is student agency and why is it needed now more than ever?,” Theory Pract., vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 109–118, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.1080/00405841.2019.1702393. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2019.1702393
G. Campano, M. P. Ghiso, O. Badaki, and C. Kannan, “Agency as collectivity: Community-based research for educational equity,” Theory Pract., vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 223–233, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.1080/00405841.2019.1705107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2019.1705107
C. L. Bae, A. M. Matewos, and J. Fife, “Supporting student voice in science classrooms: The limits of psychosocial approaches and the importance of sociocultural and critical perspectives on student agency,” Educ. Psychol., vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 48–68, Jan. 2025, doi: 10.1080/00461520.2024.2370549. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2024.2370549
M. Vincoli, N. Scholz, and T. Nagashima, “Multidimensional student agency in learning with AI: A conceptual framework and design implications,” in Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIED 2025), pp. 218–232, 2025, doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-98459-4_16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-98459-4_16
Y. Dai and S. Lai, “A theoretical framework of student agency in AI-assisted learning,” in Oxford Intersections: Social Media in Society and Culture, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2025, doi: 10.1093/9780198945253.003.0009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/9780198945253.003.0009
M. J. Page et al., “The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews,” 2021. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
M. J. Page et al., “PRISMA 2020 explanation and elaboration: Updated guidance and exemplars for reporting systematic reviews,” 2021. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n160
M. L. Rethlefsen et al., “PRISMA-S: An extension to the PRISMA statement for reporting literature searches in systematic reviews,” J. Med. Libr. Assoc., vol. 109, no. 1, e39, 2021, doi: 10.5195/jmla.2021.962. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2021.962
E. Aromataris and D. Riitano, “Systematic reviews,” AJN: Am. J. Nurs., vol. 114, no. 5, pp. 49–56, May 2014, doi: 10.1097/01.NAJ.0000446779.99522.f6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/01.NAJ.0000446779.99522.f6
J. Thomas and A. Harden, “Methods for the thematic synthesis of qualitative research in systematic reviews,” BMC Med. Res. Methodol., vol. 8, no. 1, e45, Dec. 2008, doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-8-45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-8-45
A. P. Hermont et al., “The importance of full text screening when judging eligibility criteria in a systematic review: a systematic survey,” Arquivos em Odontologia, vol. 58, pp. 160-165, 2022, doi: 10.35699/2178-1990.2022.37521. DOI: https://doi.org/10.35699/2178-1990.2022.37521
C. Mameli, V. Grazia, and L. Molinari, “Student agency: Theoretical elaborations and implications for research and practice,” Int. J. Educ. Res., vol. 122, e102258, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102258. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102258
Ä. Leijen, M. Pedaste, and A. Baucal, “Assessing student teachers’ agency and using it for predicting commitment to teaching,” Eur. J. Teach. Educ., vol. 45, no. 5, pp. 600–616, Oct. 2022, doi: 10.1080/02619768.2021.1889507. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2021.1889507
C. Mameli and S. Passini, “Development and validation of an enlarged version of the student agentic engagement scale,” J. Psychoeduc. Assess., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 450–463, Jul. 2019, doi: 10.1177/0734282918757849. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282918757849
L. E. Adie, J. Willis, and F. M. van der Kleij, “Diverse perspectives on student agency in classroom assessment,” Aust. Educ. Res., vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 1–12, Mar. 2018, doi: 10.1007/s13384-018-0262-2. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-018-0262-2
L. R. Harris, G. T. L. Brown, and J. Dargusch, “Not playing the game: Student assessment resistance as a form of agency,” Austr. Educ. Res., vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 125–140, Mar. 2018, doi: 10.1007/s13384-018-0264-0. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-018-0264-0
H. Hong and S. C. Kim, “Action research on the expression of student agency using a convergence-based planner,” J. Convergence Educ. Res. Inst., vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 197–225, Jul. 2025, doi: 10.69742/cer.2025.11.2.197. DOI: https://doi.org/10.69742/cer.2025.11.2.197
M. Vaughn and J. Masterson, “Supporting foundational skills for adolescents with agency,” J. Adolesc. Adult Lit., vol. 68, no. 4, pp. 363–368, Jan. 2025, doi: 10.1002/jaal.1409. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.1409
T. Soini, J. Pietarinen, S. Ulmanen, H. Anttila, and K. Pyhältö, “Primary and lower secondary students’ learning agency and social support,” Frontline Learn. Res., vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 49–77, Nov. 2023, doi: 10.14786/flr.v11i2.983. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v11i2.983
Y. Jo, S. Park, and W. Jung, “Development of tools to measure student agency for middle and high school students,” Korean Assoc. Learner-Centered Curric. Instr., vol. 22, no. 11, pp. 189–211, Jun. 2022, doi: 10.22251/jlcci.2022.22.11.189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22251/jlcci.2022.22.11.189
R. C. Anderson et al., “Student agency at the crux: Mitigating disengagement in middle and high school,” Contemp. Educ. Psychol., vol. 56, pp. 205–217, Jan. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.12.005. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.12.005
S. Lopera and N. Sierra, “Students’ agency in a foreign language policy in Colombian higher education,” Profile: Issues in Teachers’ Prof. Dev., vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 83–96, Jan. 2025, doi: 10.15446/profile.v27n1.113292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15446/profile.v27n1.113292
M. E. Goshin, P. S. Sorokin, and B. V. Kupriyanov, “Agency manifestations in schoolchildren and their involvement in participatory budgeting,” Integr. Educ., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 97–113, Mar. 2025, doi: 10.15507/1991-9468.029.202501.097-113. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15507/1991-9468.029.202501.097-113
D. Rupnik and S. Avsec, “Student agency as an enabler in cultivating sustainable competencies for people-oriented technical professions,” Educ. Sci. (Basel)., vol. 15, no. 4, e469, Apr. 2025, doi: 10.3390/educsci15040469. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15040469
A. H. Dyson, “‘This isn’t my real writing’: The fate of children’s agency in too-tight curricula,” Theory Pract., vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 119–127, Apr. 2020, doi: 10.1080/00405841.2019.1702390. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2019.1702390
E. M. A. Geurts, R. P. Reijs, H. H. M. Leenders, M. W. J. Jansen, and C. J. P. A. Hoebe, “Promoting student voice by involving vocational education students and staff in citizenship education development: A participatory action research study,” J. Educ. Change, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 271-289, 2025, doi: 10.1007/s10833-024-09523-y. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-024-09523-y
J. Yoon and M. Rönnlund, “Control and agency in student–teacher relations: A cross–cultural perspective on Finnish and Korean comprehensive schools,” Educ. Inq., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 54–72, Jan. 2021, doi: 10.1080/20004508.2020.1744350. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20004508.2020.1744350
L. Xia, K. Shen, H. Sun, X. An, and Y. Dong, “Developing and validating the student learning agency scale in generative artificial intelligence (AI)-supported contexts,” Educ. Inf. Technol. (Dordr)., vol. 30, no. 10, pp. 13999–14021, Jul. 2025, doi: 10.1007/s10639-024-13137-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13137-5
Y. Yang, J. Luo, M. Yang, R. Yang, and J. Chen, “From surface to deep learning approaches with Generative AI in higher education: An analytical framework of student agency,” Stud. Higher Educ., vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 817-830, 2024, doi: 10.1080/03075079.2024.2327003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2327003
M. Saarela, V. Heilala, P. Jaaskela, A. Rantakaulio, and T. Karkkainen, “Explainable student agency analytics,” IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 137444–137459, 2021, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3116664. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3116664
D. Hooshyar, K. Tammets, T. Ley, K. Aus, and K. Kollom, “Learning analytics in supporting student agency: A systematic review,” Sustain., vol. 15, no. 18, e13662, Sep. 2023, doi: 10.3390/su151813662. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813662
S.-H. Jin, K. Im, M. Yoo, I. Roll, and K. Seo, “Supporting students’ self-regulated learning in online learning using artificial intelligence applications,” Int. J. Educ. Technol. Higher Educ., vol. 20, no. 1, e37, Jun. 2023, doi: 10.1186/s41239-023-00406-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00406-5
S. B. Shum, “Generative AI for critical analysis: Practical tools, cognitive offloading and human agency,” in CEUR Workshop Proceedings, 2024.
X. Cheng, P. Lu, Y. Qian, and S. Garrett, “Prospective roles of language teachers in AI-assisted language teaching: An action research,” Int. J. Engl. Acad. Purposes: Res. Pract., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 69–83, Mar. 2025, doi: 10.3828/ijeap.2025.5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3828/ijeap.2025.5
L. C. Nnadi, Y. Watanobe, M. M. Rahman, and A. M. John-Otumu, “Prediction of students’ adaptability using explainable AI in educational machine learning models,” Appl. Sci. (Switzerland), vol. 14, no. 12, e5141, 2024, doi: 10.3390/app14125141. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app14125141
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2026 Novi Sylvia, A. Ahman, Syamsu Yusuf, Deni Hadiana
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
